Fibonacci Numbers and Nature
Fibonacci numbers and why they appear in various "family trees" and patterns of spirals of leaves and seeds. why the golden section is used by nature in some detail, including animations of growing plants.Contents of this Page
The icon means there is a Things to do investigation at the end of the section.
|
Rabbits, Cows and Bees Family Trees
Let's look first at the Rabbit Puzzle that Fibonacci wrote about and then at two adaptations of it to make it more realistic. This introduces you to the Fibonacci Number series and the simple definition of the whole never-ending series.Fibonacci's Rabbits
The original problem that Fibonacci investigated (in the year 1202) was about how fast rabbits could breed in ideal circumstances.Suppose a newly-born pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field. Rabbits are able to mate at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits. Suppose that our rabbits never die and that the female always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on. The puzzle that Fibonacci posed was...
How many pairs will there be in one year?
- At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still one onl y 1 pair.
- At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs of rabbits in the field.
- At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair, making 3 pairs in all in the field.
- At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, the female born two months ago produces her first pair also, making 5 pairs.
The number of pairs of rabbits in the field at the start of each month is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...
The first 300 Fibonacci numbers are here and some questions for you to answer.
Now can you see why this is the answer to our Rabbits problem? If not, here's why.
Another view of the Rabbit's Family Tree:
- All the rabbits born in the same month are of the same generation and are on the same level in the tree.
- The rabbits have been uniquely numbered so that in the same generation the new rabbits are numbered in the order of their parent's number. Thus 5, 6 and 7 are the children of 0, 1 and 2 respectively.
- The rabbits labelled with a Fibonacci number are the children of the original rabbit (0) at the top of the tree.
- There are a Fibonacci number of new rabbits in each generation, marked with a dot.
- There are a Fibonacci number of rabbits in total from the top down to any single generation.
|
The Rabbits problem is not very realistic, is it?
It seems to imply that brother and sisters mate, which, genetically, leads to problems. We can get round this by saying that the female of each pair mates with any male and produces another pair.Another problem which again is not true to life, is that each birth is of exactly two rabbits, one male and one female.
Dudeney's Cows
The English puzzlist, Henry E Dudeney (1857 - 1930, pronounced Dude-knee) wrote several excellent books of puzzles (see after this section). In one of them he adapts Fibonacci's Rabbits to cows, making the problem more realistic in the way we observed above. He gets round the problems by noticing that really, it is onl y the females that are interesting - er - I mean the number of females! He changes months into years and rabbits into bulls (male) and cows (females) in problem 175 in his book 536 puzzles and Curious Problems (1967, Souvenir press):If a cow produces its first she-calf at age two years and after that produces another single she-calf every year, how many she-calves are there after 12 years, assuming none die?This is a better simplification of the problem and quite realistic now. But Fibonacci does what mathematicians often do at first, simplify the problem and see what happens - and the series bearing his name does have lots of other interesting and practical applications as we see later.
So let's look at another real-life situation that is exactly modelled by Fibonacci's series - honeybees.
Puzzle books by Henry E Dudeney
Amusements in Mathematics, Dover Press, 1958, 250 pages.Still in print thanks to Dover in a very sturdy paperback format at an incredibly inexpensive price. This is a wonderful collection that I find I often dip into. There are arithmetic puzzles, geometric puzzles, chessboard puzzles, an excellent chapter on all kinds of mazes and solving them, magic squares, river crossing puzzles, and more, all with full solutions and often extra notes! Highly recommended! 536 Puzzles and Curious Problems is now out of print, but you may be able to pick up a second hand version by clicking on this link. It is another collection like Amusements in Mathematics (above) but containing different puzzles arranged in sections: Arithmetical and Algebraic puzzles, Geometrical puzzles, Combinatorial and Topological puzzles, Game puzzles, Domino puzzles, match puzzles and "unclassified" puzzles. Full solutions and index. A real treasure. The Canterbury Puzzles, Dover 2002, 256 pages. More puzzles (not in the previous books) the first section with some characters from Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and other sections on the Monks of Riddlewell, the squire's Christmas party, the Professors puzzles and so on and all with full solutions of course!
Honeybees and Family trees
There are over 30,000 species of bees and in most of them the bees live solitary lives. The one most of us know best is the honeybee and it, unusually, lives in a colony called a hive and they have an unusual Family Tree. In fact, there are many unusual features of honeybees and in this section we will show how the Fibonacci numbers count a honeybee's ancestors (in this section a "bee" will mean a "honeybee").First, some unusual facts about honeybees such as: not all of them have two parents!
In a colony of honeybees there is one special female called the queen.
There are many worker bees who are female too but unlike the queen bee, they produce no eggs.
There are some drone bees who are male and do no work.
Males are produced by the queen's unfertilised eggs, so male bees onl y have a mother but no father!
All the females are produced when the queen has mated with a male and so have two parents. Females usually end up as worker bees but some are fed with a special substance called royal jelly which makes them grow into queens ready to go off to start a new colony when the bees form a swarm and leave their home (a hive) in search of a place to build a new nest.
So female bees have 2 parents, a male and a female whereas male bees have just one parent, a female. Here we follow the convention of Family Trees that parents appear above their children, so the latest generations are at the bottom and the higher up we go, the older people are. Such trees show all the ancestors (predecessors, forebears, antecedents) of the person at the bottom of the diagram. We would get quite a different tree if we listed all the descendants (progeny, offspring) of a person as we did in the rabbit problem, where we showed all the descendants of the original pair. Let's look at the family tree of a male drone bee.
- He had 1 parent, a female.
- He has 2 grand-parents, since his mother had two parents, a male and a female.
- He has 3 great-grand-parents: his grand-mother had two parents but his grand-father had onl y one .
- How many great-great-grand parents did he have?
great- great,great gt,gt,gt grand- grand- grand grandNumber of parents: parents: parents: parents: parents:of a MALE bee: 1 2 3 5 8of a FEMALE bee: 2 3 5 8 13The Fibonacci Sequence as it appears in Nature by S.L.Basin in Fibonacci Quarterly, vol 1 (1963), pages 53 - 57.
|
Things to do
- Make a diagram of your own family tree. Ask your parents and grandparents and older relatives as each will be able to tell you about particular parts of your family tree that other's didn't know. It can be quite fun trying to see how far back you can go. If you have them put old photographs of relatives on a big chart of your Tree (or use photocopies of the photographs if your relatives want to keep the originals). If you like, include the year and place of birth and death and also the dates of any marriages.
- A brother or sister is the name for someone who has the same two parents as yourself. What is a half-brother and half-sister?
Describe a cousin but use simpler words such as brother, sister, parent, child?
Do the same for nephew and niece. What is a second cousin? What do we mean by a brother-in-law, sister-in-law, mother-in-law, etc? Grand- and great- refer to relatives or your parents. Thus a grand-father is a father of a parent of yours and great-aunt or grand-aunt is the name given to an aunt of your parent's. Make a diagram of Family Tree Names so that "Me" is at the bottom and "Mum" and "Dad" are above you. Mark in "brother", "sister", "uncle", "nephew" and as many other names of (kinds of) relatives that you know. It doesn't matter if you have no brothers or sisters or nephews as the diagram is meant to show the relationships and their names.
[If you have a friend who speaks a foreign language, ask them what words they use for these relationships.]
- What is the name for the wife of a parent's brother?
Do you use a different name for the sister of your parent's?
In law these two are sometimes distinguished because one is a blood relative of yours and the other is not, just a relative through marriage.
Which do you think is the blood relative and which the relation because of marriage? - How many parents does everyone have?
So how many grand-parents will you have to make spaces for in your Family tree?
Each of them also had two parents so how many great-grand-parents of yours will there be in your Tree?
..and how many great-great-grandparents?
What is the pattern in this series of numbers?
If you go back one generation to your parents, and two to your grand-parents, how many entries will there be 5 generations ago in your Tree? and how many 10 generations ago? The Family Tree of humans involves a different sequence to the Fibonacci Numbers. What is this sequence called?
- Looking at your answers to the previous question, your friend Dee Duckshun says to you:
- You have 2 parents.
- They each have two parents, so that's 4 grand-parents you've got.
- They also had two parents each making 8 great-grand-parents in total ...
- ... and 16 great-great-grand-parents ...
- ... and so on.
- So the farther back you go in your Family Tree the more people there are.
- It is the same for the Family Tree of everyone alive in the world today.
- It shows that the farther back in time we go, the more people there must have been.
- So it is a logical deduction that the population of the world must be getting smaller and smaller as time goes on!
Is there an error in Dee's argument? If so, what is it? Ask your maths teacher or a parent if you are not sure of the answer!
|
Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Number
If we take the ratio of two successive numbers in Fibonacci's series, (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ..) and we divide each by the number before it, we will find the following series of numbers:1/1 = 1, 2/1 = 2, 3/2 = 1·5, 5/3 = 1·666..., 8/5 = 1·6, 13/8 = 1·625, 21/13 = 1·61538... It is easier to see what is happening if we plot the ratios on a graph:
The ratio seems to be settling down to a particular value, which we call the golden ratio or the golden number. It has a value of approximately 1·618034 , although we shall find an even more accurate value on a later page [this link opens a new window] .
Things to do
- What happens if we take the ratios the other way round i.e. we divide each number by the one following it: 1/1, 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 5/8, 8/13, ..?
Use your calculator and perhaps plot a graph of these ratios and see if anything similar is happening compared with the graph above.
You'll have spotted a fundamental property of this ratio when you find the limiting value of the new series!
|
Fibonacci Rectangles and Shell Spirals
We can make another picture showing the Fibonacci numbers 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,.. if we start with two small squares of size 1 next to each other. On top of both of these draw a square of size 2 (=1+1).We can now draw a new square - touching both a unit square and the latest square of side 2 - so having sides 3 units long; and then another touching both the 2-square and the 3-square (which has sides of 5 units). We can continue adding squares around the picture, each new square having a side which is as long as the sum of the latest two square's sides. This set of rectangles whose sides are two successive Fibonacci numbers in length and which are composed of squares with sides which are Fibonacci numbers, we will call the Fibonacci Rectangles.
Here is a spiral drawn in the squares, a quarter of a circle in each square. The spiral is not a true mathematical spiral (since it is made up of fragments which are parts of circles and does not go on getting smaller and smaller) but it is a good approximation to a kind of spiral that does appear often in nature. Such spirals are seen in the shape of shells of snails and sea shells and, as we see later, in the arrangement of seeds on flowering plants too. The spiral-in-the-squares makes a line from the centre of the spiral increase by a factor of the golden number in each square. So points on the spiral are 1.618 times as far from the centre after a quarter-turn. In a whole turn the points on a radius out from the centre are 1.6184 = 6.854 times further out than when the curve last crossed the same radial line.
Cundy and Rollett (Mathematical Models, second edition 1961, page 70) say that this spiral occurs in snail-shells and flower-heads referring to D'Arcy Thompson's On Growth and Form probably meaning chapter 6 "The Equiangular Spiral". Here Thompson is talking about a class of spiral with a constant expansion factor along a central line and not just shells with a Phi expansion factor.
Below are images of cross-sections of a Nautilus sea shell. They show the spiral curve of the shell and the internal chambers that the animal using it adds on as it grows. The chambers provide buoyancy in the water. Click on the picture to enlarge it in a new window. Draw a line from the centre out in any direction and find two places where the shell crosses it so that the shell spiral has gone round just onc e between them. The outer crossing point will be about 1.6 times as far from the centre as the next inner point on the line where the shell crosses it. This shows that the shell has grown by a factor of the golden ratio in one turn.
On the poster shown here, this factor varies from 1.6 to 1.9 and may be due to the shell not being cut exactly along a central plane to produce the cross-section. Several organisations and companies have a logo based on this design, using the spiral of Fibonacci squares and sometime with the Nautilus shell superimposed. It is incorrect to say this is a Phi-spiral. Firstly the "spiral" is onl y an approximation as it is made up of separate and distinct quarter-circles; secondly the (true) spiral increases by a factor Phi every quarter-turn so it is more correct to call it a Phi4 spiral.
Click on the logos to find out more about the organisations.
Here are some more posters available from AllPosters.com that are great for your study wall or classroom or to go with a science project. Click on the pictures to enlarge them in a new window.
Everest Community College Basingstoke |
Nautilus Wampler, Sondra Buy this Art Print at AllPosters.com | Nautilus Shell Myers, Bert Buy this Art Print at AllPosters.com | Nautilus Schenck, Deborah Buy this Art Print at AllPosters.com |
Reference
The Curves of Life Theodore A Cook, Dover books, 1979, ISBN 0 486 23701 X.
A Dover reprint of a classic 1914 book.
|
Fibonacci Numbers, the Golden Section and Plants
One plant in particular shows the Fibonacci numbers in the number of "growing points" that it has. Suppose that when a plant puts out a new shoot, that shoot has to grow two months before it is strong enough to support branching. If it branches every month after that at the growing point, we get the picture shown here.A plant that grows very much like this is the "sneezewort": Achillea ptarmica.
|
Petals on flowers
On many plants, the number of petals is a Fibonacci number:buttercups have 5 petals; lilies and iris have 3 petals; some delphiniums have 8; corn marigolds have 13 petals; some asters have 21 whereas daisies can be found with 34, 55 or even 89 petals.
The links here are to various flower and plant catalogues:
- the Dutch Flowerweb's searchable index called Flowerbase.
- The US Department of Agriculture's Plants Database containing over 1000 images, plant information and searchable database.
Fuchsia | Pinks | Lily | Daisies available as a poster at AllPosters.com |
Mark Taylor (Australia), a grower of Hemerocallis and Liliums (lilies) points out that although these appear to have 6 petals as shown above, 3 are in fact sepals and 3 are petals. Sepals form the outer protection of the flower when in bud. Mark's Barossa Daylilies web site (opens in a new window) contains many flower pictures where the difference between sepals and petals is clearly visible.
4 petals Very few plants show 4 petals (or sepals) but some, such as the fuchsia above, do. 4 is not a Fibonacci number! We return to this point near the bottom of this page.
5 petals: buttercup, wild rose, larkspur, columbine (aquilegia), pinks (shown above)
The humble buttercup has been bred into a multi-petalled form.
8 petals: delphiniums
13 petals: ragwort, corn marigold, cineraria, some daisies
21 petals: aster, black-eyed susan, chicory
34 petals: plantain, pyrethrum
55, 89 petals: michaelmas daisies, the asteraceae family.
Some species are very precise about the number of petals they have - e.g. buttercups, but others have petals that are very near those above, with the average being a Fibonacci number. Here is a passion flower (passiflora incarnata) from the back and front:
|
Seed heads
This poppy seed head has 13 ridges on top. Fibonacci numbers can also be seen in the arrangement of seeds on flower heads. The picture here is Tim Stone's beautiful photograph of a Coneflower, used here by kind permission of Tim. The part of the flower in the picture is about 2 cm across. It is a member of the daisy family with the scientific name Echinacea purpura and native to the Illinois prairie where he lives. You can have a look at some more of Tim's wonderful photographs on the web.You can see that the orange "petals" seem to form spirals curving both to the left and to the right. At the edge of the picture, if you count those spiralling to the right as you go outwards, there are 55 spirals. A little further towards the centre and you can count 34 spirals. How many spirals go the other way at these places? You will see that the pair of numbers (counting spirals in curing left and curving right) are neighbours in the Fibonacci series. Click on the picture on the right to see it in more detail in a separate window.
Here is a sunflower with the same arrangement: | This is a larger sunflower with 89 and 55 spirals at the edge: | |
SunflowerBuy This Art Print At AllPosters.com | Here are some more wonderful pictures from All Posters (which you can buy for your classroom or wall at home). Click on each to enlarge it in a new window. | SunflowerBuy This Poster At AllPosters.com |
The spirals are patterns that the eye sees, "curvier" spirals appearing near the centre, flatter spirals (and more of them) appearing the farther out we go. So the number of spirals we see, in either direction, is different for larger flower heads than for small. On a large flower head, we see more spirals further out than we do near the centre. The numbers of spirals in each direction are (almost always) neighbouring Fibonacci numbers! Click on these links for some more diagrams of 500, 1000 and 5000 seeds.
Click on the image on the right for a Quicktime animation of 120 seeds appearing from a single central growing point. Each new seed is just phi (0·618) of a turn from the last one (or, equivalently, there are Phi (1·618) seeds per turn). The animation shows that, no matter how big the seed head gets, the seeds are always equally spaced. At all stages the Fibonacci Spirals can be seen.
The same pattern shown by these dots (seeds) is followed if the dots then develop into leaves or branches or petals. Each dot onl y moves out directly from the central stem in a straight line.
This process models what happens in nature when the "growing tip" produces seeds in a spiral fashion. The onl y active area is the growing tip - the seeds onl y get bigger onc e they have appeared. [This animation was produced by Maple. If there are N seeds in one frame, then the newest seed appears nearest the central dot, at 0·618 of a turn from the angle at which the last appeared. A seed which is i frames "old" still keeps its original angle from the exact centre but will have moved out to a distance which is the square-root of i.]
Phyllotaxis : A Systemic Study in Plant Morphogenesis (Cambridge Studies in Mathematical Biology) by Roger V. Jean (400 pages, Cambridge University Press, 1994) has a good illustration on its cover - click on the book's title link or this little picture of the cover and on the page that opens, click on picture of the front cover to see it. It clearly shows that the spirals the eye sees are different near the centre on a real sunflower seed head, with all the seeds the same size. Smith College (Northampton, Massachusetts, USA) has an excellent website : An Interactive Site for the Mathematical Study of Plant Pattern Formation which is well worth visiting. It also has a page of links to more resources. Note that you will not always find the Fibonacci numbers in the number of petals or spirals on seed heads etc., although they often come close to the Fibonacci numbers.
Things to do
- Why not grow your own sunflower from seed?
I was surprised how easy they are to grow when the one pictured above just appeared in a bowl of bulbs on my patio at home in the North of England. Perhaps it got there from a bird-seed mix I put out last year? Bird-seed mix often has sunflower seeds in it, so you can pick a few out and put them in a pot. Sow them between April and June and keep them warm.
Alternatively, there are now a dazzling array of colours and shapes of sunflowers to try. A good source for your seed is: Nicky's Seeds who supplies the whole range of flower and vegetable seed including sunflower seed in the UK. - Have a look at the onl ine catalogue at Nicky's Seeds where there are lots of pictures of each of the flowers.
- Which plants show Fibonacci spirals on their flowers?
- Can you find an example of flowers with 5, 8, 13 or 21 petals?
- Are there flowers shown with other numbers of petals which are not Fibonacci numbers?
|
Pine cones
Things to do
- Collect some pine cones for yourself and count the spirals in both directions.
A tip: Soak the cones in water so that they close up to make counting the spirals easier. Are all the cones identical in that the steep spiral (the one with most spiral arms) goes in the same direction? - What about a pineapple? Can you spot the same spiral pattern? How many spirals are there in each direction?
Links and References
- From St. Mary's College (Maryland USA), Professor Susan Goldstine
- has a page with really good pine cone pictures showing the actual order of the open "petals" of the cone numbered down the cone.
- Fibonacci Statistics in Conifers A Brousseau , The Fibonacci Quarterly vol 7 (1969) pages 525 - 532
- You will occasionally find pine cones that do not have a Fibonacci number of spirals in one or both directions. Sometimes this is due to deformities produced by disease or pests but sometimes the cones look normal too. This article reports on a study of this question and others in a large collection of Californian pine cones of different kinds. The author also found that there were as many with the steep spiral (the one with more arms) going to the left as to the right.
- Pineapples and Fibonacci Numbers P B Ond erdonk The Fibonacci Quarterly vol 8 (1970), pages 507, 508.
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987 ..More.. Leaf arrangements
Also, many plants show the Fibonacci numbers in the arrangements of the leaves around their stems. If we look down on a plant, the leaves are often arranged so that leaves above do not hide leaves below. This means that each gets a good share of the sunlight and catches the most rain to channel down to the roots as it runs down the leaf to the stem.
Here's a computer-generated image, based on an African violet type of plant, whereas this has lots of leaves.Leaves per turn
The Fibonacci numbers occur when counting both the number of times we go around the stem, going from leaf to leaf, as well as counting the leaves we meet until we encounter a leaf directly above the starting one . If we count in the other direction, we get a different number of turns for the same number of leaves. The number of turns in each direction and the number of leaves met are three consecutive Fibonacci numbers!
For example, in the top plant in the picture above, we have 3 clockwise rotations before we meet a leaf directly above the first, passing 5 leaves on the way. If we go anti-clockwise, we need onl y 2 turns. Notice that 2, 3 and 5 are consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
For the lower plant in the picture, we have 5 clockwise rotations passing 8 leaves, or just 3 rotations in the anti-clockwise direction. This time 3, 5 and 8 are consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence.
We can write this as, for the top plant, 3/5 clockwise rotations per leaf ( or 2/5 for the anticlockwise direction). For the second plant it is 5/8 of a turn per leaf (or 3/8).
The sunflower here when viewed from the top shows the same pattern. It is the same plant whose side view is above. Starting at the leaf marked "X", we find the next lower leaf turning clockwise. Numbering the leaves produces the patterns shown here on the right.
The leaves here are numbered in turn, each exactly 0.618 of a clockwise turn (222.5°) from the previous one .Leaf
numberturns
clockwise3 1 5 2 8 3 Leaf arrangements of some common plants
One estimate is that 90 percent of all plants exhibit this pattern of leaves involving the Fibonacci numbers.
Some common trees with their Fibonacci leaf arrangement numbers are:
1/2 elm, linden, lime, grasses
where t/n means each leaf is t/n of a turn after the last leaf or that there is there are t turns for n leaves.
1/3 beech, hazel, grasses, blackberry
2/5 oak, cherry, apple, holly, plum, common groundsel
3/8 poplar, rose, pear, willow
5/13 pussy willow, almond
Cactus's spines often show the same spirals as we have already seen on pine cones, petals and leaf arrangements, but they are much more clearly visible. Charles Dills has noted that the Fibonacci numbers occur in Bromeliads and his Home page has links to lots of pictures.0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987 ..More.. Vegetables and Fruit
Things to do
- Take a look at a cauliflower next time you're preparing one :
- First look at it:
- Count the number of florets in the spirals on your cauliflower. The number in one direction and in the other will be Fibonacci numbers, as we've seen here. Do you get the same numbers as in the picture?
- Take a closer look at a single floret (break one off near the base of your cauliflower). It is a mini cauliflower with its own little florets all arranged in spirals around a centre.
If you can, count the spirals in both directions. How many are there?
- Then, when cutting off the florets, try this:
- start at the bottom and take off the largest floret, cutting it off parallel to the main "stem".
- Find the next on up the stem. It'll be about 0·618 of a turn round (in one direction). Cut it off in the same way.
- Repeat, as far as you like and..
- Now look at the stem. Where the florets are rather like a pine cone or pineapple. The florets were arranged in spirals up the stem. Counting them again shows the Fibonacci numbers.
- First look at it:
- Try the same thing for broccoli.
- Chinese leaves and lettuce are similar but there is no proper stem for the leaves. Instead, carefully take off the leaves, from the outermost first, noticing that they overlap and there is usually onl y one that is the outermost each time. You should be able to find some Fibonacci number connections.
- Look for the Fibonacci numbers in fruit.
- What about a banana? Count how many "flat" surfaces it is made from - is it 3 or perhaps 5? When you've peeled it, cut it in half (as if breaking it in half, not lengthwise) and look again. Surprise! There's a Fibonacci number.
- What about an apple? Instead of cutting it from the stalk to the opposite end (where the flower was), i.e. from "North pole" to "South pole", try cutting it along the "Equator". Surprise! there's your Fibonacci number!
- Try a Sharon fruit.
- Where else can you find the Fibonacci numbers in fruit and vegetables? Why not email me with your results and the best one s will be put on the Web here (or linked to your own web page).
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987 ..More.. Fibonacci Fingers?
Look at your own hand:
You have ...- 2 hands each of which has ...
- 5 fingers, each of which has ...
- 3 parts separated by ...
- 2 knuckles
However, if you measure the lengths of the bones in your finger (best seen by slightly bending the finger) does it look as if the ratio of the longest bone in a finger to the middle bone is Phi?
What about the ratio of the middle bone to the shortest bone (at the end of the finger) - Phi again?
Can you find any ratios in the lengths of the fingers that looks like Phi? ---or does it look as if it could be any other similar ratio also? Why not measure your friends' hands and gather some statistics?NOTE: When this page was first created (back in 1996) this was meant as a joke and as something to investigate to show that Phi, a precise ratio of 1.6180339... is not "the Answer to Life The Universe and Everything" -- since we all know the answer to that is 42 .
Similarly, if you find the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 5 occurring somewhere it does not always means the Fibonacci numbers are there (although they could be). Richard Guy's excellent and readable article on how and why people draw wrong conclusions from inadequate data is well worth looking at:
The idea of the lengths of finger parts being in phi ratios was posed in 1973 but two later articles investigating this both show this is false.
Although the Fibonacci numbers are mentioned in the title of an article in 2003, it is actually about the golden section ratios of bone lengths in the human hand, showing that in 100 hand x-rays onl y 1 in 12 could reasonably be supposed to have golden section bone-length ratios.
Research by two British doctors in 2002 looks at lengths of fingers from their rotation points in almost 200 hands and again fails to find to find phi (the actual ratios found were 1:1 or 1:1.3).
On the adaptability of man's hand J W Littler, The Hand vol 5 (1973) pages 187-191.
The Fibonacci Sequence: Relationship to the Human Hand Andrew E Park, John J Fernandez, Karl Schmedders and Mark S Cohen Journal of Hand Surgery vol 28 (2003) pages 157-160.
Radiographic assessment of the relative lengths of the bones of the fingers of the human hand by R. Hamilton and R. A. Dunsmuir Journal of Hand Surgery vol 27B (British and European Volume, 2002) pages 546-548
[with thanks to Gregory O'Grady of New Zealand for these references and the information in this note.]
The Strong Law of Small Numbers Richard K Guy in The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol 95, 1988, pages 697-712.0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987 ..More.. Always Fibonacci?
But is it always the Fibonacci numbers that appear in plants?I remember as a child looking in a field of clover for the elusive 4-leaved clover -- and finding one .A fuchsia has 4 sepals and 4 petals: and sometimes sweet peppers don't have 3 but 4 chambers inside:
crocus
narcissus
amaryllisHere is a succulent with a clear arrangement of 4 spirals
in one direction and 7 in the other:and here is another with 11 and 18 spirals: whereas this Echinocactus Grusonii Inermis
has 29 ribs:2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123, 199, 322, 521, 843 ..More..Did you notice that 4, 7, 11, 18 and even 29 all occurred in the non-Fibonacci pictures above?But, no matter what two numbers we begin with, the ratio of two successive numbers in all of these Fibonacci-type sequences always approaches a special value, the golden mean, of 1.6180339... and this seems to be the secret behind the series. There is more on this and how mathematics has verified that packings based on this number are the most efficient on the next page at this site. A sunflower with 47 and 76 spirals is an illustration from
Quantitative Analysis of Sunflower Seed Packing by G W Ryan, J L Rouse and L A Bursill, J. Theor. Biol. 147 (1991) pages 303-328A quote from Coxeter on Phyllotaxis
H S M Coxeter, in his Introduction to Geometry (1961, Wiley, page 172) - see the references at the foot of this page - has the following important quote:it should be frankly admitted that in some plants the numbers do not belong to the sequence of f's [Fibonacci numbers] but to the sequence of g's [Lucas numbers] or even to the still more anomalous sequences
But the tendency has behind it a universal number, the golden section,which we will explore on the next page.
3,1,4,5,9,... or 5,2,7,9,16,...Thus we must face the fact that phyllotaxis is really not a universal law but onl y a fascinatingly preval ent tendency.
He cites A H Church's The relation of phyllotaxis to mechanical laws, Williams and Norgate, London, 1904, plates XXV and IX as examples of the Lucas numbers and plates V, VII, XIII and VI as examples of the Fibonacci numbers on sunflowers.0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987 ..More.. References and Links
Key
Excellent books which cover similar material to that which you have found on this page are produced by Trudi Garland and Mark Wahl: Mathematical Mystery Tour by Mark Wahl, 1989, is full of many mathematical investigations, illustrations, diagrams, tricks, facts, notes as well as guides for teachers using the material. It is a great resource for your own investigations. Books by Trudi Garland:
means the reference is to a book (and any link will take you to more information about the book and an on-line site from which you can purchase it);
means the reference is to an article in a magazine or a paper in a scientific periodical.
indicates a link to another web site.
Fascinating Fibonaccis by Trudi Hammel Garland.
This is a really excellent book - suitable for all, and especially good for teachers seeking more material to use in class. Trudy is a teacher in California and has some more information on her book. (You can even Buy it onl ine now!)
She also has published several posters, including one on the golden section suitable for a classroom or your study room wall.
You should also look at her other Fibonacci book too:
Fibonacci Fun: Fascinating Activities with Intriguing Numbers Trudi Hammel Garland - a book for teachers. Mathematical Models H M Cundy and A P Rollett, (third edition, Tarquin, 1997) is still a good resource book though it talks mainly about physical models whereas today we might use computer-generated models. It was one of the first mathematics books I purchased and remains one I dip into still. It is an excellent resource on making 3-D models of polyhedra out of card, as well as on puzzles and how to construct a computer out of light bulbs and switches (no electronics!) which I gave me more of an insight into how a computer can "do maths" than anything else. There is a wonderful section on equations of pretty curves, some simple, some not so simple, that are a challenge to draw even if we do use spreadsheets to plot them now.
On Growth and Form by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, Dover, (Complete Revised edition 1992) 1116 pages. First published in 1917, this book inspired many people to look for mathematical forms in nature.
Sex ratio and sex allocation in sweat bees (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) D Yanega, in Journal of Kansas Entomology Society, volume 69 Supplement, 1966, pages 98-115.
Because of the imbalance in the family tree of honeybees, the ratio of male honeybees to females is not 1-to-1. This was noticed by Doug Yanega of the Entomology Research Museum at the University of California. In the article above, he correctly deduced that the number of females to males in the honeybee community will be around the golden-ratio Phi = 1.618033.. .
On the Trail of the California Pine, Brother Alfred Brousseau, Fibonacci Quarterly, vol 6, 1968, pages 69 - 76;
on the authors summer expedition to collect examples of all the pines in California and count the number of spirals in both directions, all of which were neighbouring Fibonacci numbers.
Why Fibonacci Sequence for Palm Leaf Spirals? in The Fibonacci Quarterly vol 9 (1971), pages 227 - 244.
Fibonacci System in Aroids in The Fibonacci Quarterly vol 9 (1971), pages 253 - 263. The Aroids are a family of plants that include the Dieffenbachias, Monsteras and Philodendrons.WWW links on Phyllotaxis, the Fibonacci Numbers and Nature
- Take a look at a cauliflower next time you're preparing one :
- Phyllotaxis - An interactive site for the mathematical study of plant pattern formation by Pau Atela and Chris Gole of the Mathematics Dept at Smith College, Massachusetts.
- is an excellent site, beautifully designed with lots of pictures and buttons to push for an interactive learning experience! A must-see site!
- Alan Turing
- one of the Fathers of modern computing (who lived here in Guildford during his early school years) was interested in many aspects of computers and Artificial Intelligence (AI) well before the electronic stored-program computer was developed enough to materialise some of his ideas. One of his interests (see his Collected Works) was Morphogenesis, the study of the growing shapes of animals and plants.
The book Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges is an enjoyable and readable account of his life and work on computing as well as his contributions to breaking the German war-time code that used a machine called "Enigma".
Unfortunately this book is now out of print, but click on the book-title link and Amazon.com will see if they can find a copy for you with no obligation. - The most irrational number
- One of the American Maths Society (AMS) web site's What's New in Mathematics regular monthly columns. This one is on the Golden Section and Fibonacci Spirals in plants.
- Phyllotaxis
- An interactive site for the mathematical study of plant pattern formation for university biology students at Smith College. Has a useful gallery of pictures showing the Fibonacci spirals in various plants.
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987 ..More.. Navigating through this Fibonacci and Phi site
The Lucas numbers are formed in the same way as the Fibonacci numbers - by adding the latest two to get the next, but instead of starting at 0 and 1 [Fibonacci numbers] the Lucas number series starts with 2 and 1. The other two sequences Coxeter mentions above have other pairs of starting values but then proceed with the exactly the same rule as the Fibonacci numbers. These series are the General Fibonacci series.
An interesting fact is that for all series that are formed from adding the latest two numbers to get the next starting from any two values (bigger than zero), the ratio of successive terms will always tend to Phi!
So Phi (1.618...) and her identical-decimal sister phi (0.618...) are constants common to all varieties of Fibonacci series and they have lots of interesting properties of their own too. The links above will take you to further pages on this site for you to explore. You can also just follow the links below in the Where To next? section at the bottom on each page and this will go through the pages in order. Or you can browse through the pages that take your interest from the complete collection and brief descriptions on the home page. There are pages on Who was Fibonacci?, the golden section (phi) in the arts: architecture, music, pictures etc as well as two pages of puzzles.
Many of the topics we touch on in these pages open up new areas of mathematics such as Continued Fractions, Egyptian fractions, Pythagorean triangles, and more, all written for school students and needing no more mathematics than is covered in school up to age 16.There are no earlier topics - this is the first. the Fibonacci Home Page This is the first page on this Topic. Where to now? The next page on this topic is ...
The golden section in nature
The next Topic is...
The Puzzling World of Fibonacci Numbers
http://apmath.kku.ac.kr/~seokko/fibonacci.htm
자연에서 볼 수 있는 피보나치 수열의 예 | |||||||||
|
자연과 생태 http://www.econature.co,kr |
자연과 생태 2006년 5월호 Vol.2 |
해바라기의 씨앗들은 55열의 나선과 89열의 나선을 이루며 박혀 있다.
황금비율이란 가로와 세로 또는 세로와 가로의 비율이 1 : 1.618로 가장 안정되고 아름답게 느껴지는 비율이다. 예부터 인간은 이 황금비율을 건축물과 예술 작품에 적용했고, 현대에도 마찬가지다. 인간은 왜 이 기하학적 비율에서 가장 안정감과 아름다움을 느끼는 것일까? 그 비밀은 자연에 있다. 이달의 ‘생태 탐사 여행’은 자연 속에 무수히 널려 있는 황금비율을 찾으러 떠나보자.
피라미드, 파르테논 신전, 밀로의 비너스, 부석사 무량수전, 신용카드, 이들의 공통점은? 정답은 황금비율이다. 황금비율이란 가로와 세로 또는 세로와 가로의 비율이 1 : 1.618을 이룰 때 가장 안정되고 아름답게 느껴지는 비율이다.
사람들에게 여러 가지의 사각형을 제시하고 그 중에서 눈에 가장 안정적으로 느껴지거나 또는 눈에 제일 먼저 들어오는 사각형을 고르라고 하면 문화권, 인종, 성별, 연령에 관계없이 황금비율로 된 직사각형을 고른다고 한다. 이렇게 황금비율은 사람들이 가장 편안하고 아름답게 느끼는 비율로 알려져 있으며, 고대부터 많은 건축물과 예술 작품에 적용되었고, 현대에 들어서는 실생활에도 적용되고 있다.
붓꽃은 3장의 꽃받침 위에 3장의 꽃잎이 있다(왼쪽). 패랭이의 꽃잎은 5장이다(오른쪽).
동서고금에 나타나는 황금비율
황금비율을 적용한 가장 오래된 예는 기원전 4700여 년 전에 건설된 피라미드에서 찾을 수 있다. 고대 이집트인들은 일정한 간격마다 매듭이 있는 줄을 가지고 길이의 비가 3 : 4 : 5인 직각 삼각형을 만들었고, 이를 피라미드와 신전 등의 각종 건축물에 사용했다고 한다. 여기서 길이의 비가 3 : 4 : 5인 직각삼각형의 최단선분과 최장선분의 비는 3 : 5로 황금비에 가깝다는 사실을 알 수 있다.
고대 그리스 아테네 시의 수호신인 아테나를 모신 파르테논 신전도 황금비율로 지어졌다. 파르테논 신전을 정면에서 보면 폭과 높이의 비율이 정확히 황금비율을 이룬다. 상 전체 구성이 매우 안정감을 주는 밀로의 비너스는 여러 부분이 5:8의 비율로 되어 있는데, 이 또한 1:1.6에 일치한다. 배흘림기둥으로 유명한 부석사의 무량수전은 평면의 가로와 세로 비율이 황금비율을 이룬다. 신용카드의 가로와 세로의 비율은 각각 8.6cm와 5.35cm다. 이 둘의 비율 또한 1.607로 황금비율에 가깝다.
이렇게 동서고금을 막론하고 황금비율이 적용된 예는 이외에도 무수히 많다. 십자가, 액자, 창문, 사진….
자연 속에서 황금비율 찾아보기
인간은 왜 이 기하학적 비율에서 가장 안정감과 아름다움을 느끼는 것일까? 그 비밀은 자연에 있다.
그 비밀을 찾기 위해 먼저 알아둘 게 있다. 피보나치 수열이다. 12세기 말 이탈리아 천재 수학자 레오나르도 피보나치가 찾아낸 이 수열은 앞서 나오는 두 개의 숫자의 합이다. 1, 1, 1+1=2, 1+2=3, 2+3=5, 3+5=8, 5+8=13, 8+13=21, 13+21=34, 21+34=55, 34+55=89…. 피보나치 수열은 신비롭게도 가장 아름다운 기하학적 비율인 황금비를 만들어낸다. 피보나치 수열에서 앞뒤 숫자의 비율을 2/1, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, 13/8, 21/13, 34/21, 55/34, 89/55…식으로 무한대로 가면 1.618이란 황금비에 다다른다.
자! 그럼 황금비율을 향하는 피보나치 수열이 어떻게 자연 속에 숨어 있는가를 살펴보자.
먼저 주변의 꽃잎을 세어보자. 백합과 붓꽃은 꽃잎이 3장이다. 6장으로 보이지만 속지 말자. 뒤쪽의 3장은 꽃받침이다. 채송화, 패랭이, 동백은 5장, 모란과 코스모스는 8장, 금잔화는 13장이다. 국화과의 꽃들은 종류에 따라 다르지만 꽃잎이 21장, 34장, 55장, 89장이며, 겹꽃잎을 이루는데, 각 단별로 보통 8대13, 21대 34다. 모두 피보나치 숫자다.
솔방울도 자세히 관찰해 보자. 비늘 같은 조각이 우회전 나선과 좌회전 나선으로 이루어져 있는데, 보통 그 나선 수가 각각 8개와 5개로 되어 있다. 이런 나선 모양은 파인애플 열매에서도 나타난다. 너무 많아 헤아리기 어렵지만 국화과인 해바라기 씨앗들은 55열의 나선과 89열의 나선이 서로 조화를 이루며 박혀있다고 한다.
피보나치 수열이 가장 잘 나타나는 것은 식물의 잎차례이다. ‘돌려나기’ ‘어긋나기’ ‘마주나기’를 하는 잎차례는 줄기에서 잎이 나와 배열하는 방식이며 t/n로 표시한다. t번 회전하는 동안 잎이 n개 나오는 비율이 참나무, 벚나무, 사과나무는 2/5이고, 미루나무, 장미, 배, 버드나무는 3/8, 갯버들은 5/13이다. 이 또한 모두 피보나치 숫자다. 이처럼 많은 식물이 피보나치 수열에 따른 잎차례를 보이는 것은 위에 있는 잎이 아래 있는 잎을 가리지 않고 햇빛을 최대한 받을 수 있도록 하는 수학적 해법이라고 한다.
햇빛을 최대한 받기위해 아래 잎을 가리지 않으며 돋아나 잎차례,왼쪽부터돈나무,버드나무,개나리
자연의 움직임에도 황금비율이 있다
황금비율은 인간이 만든 조형물이나 식물에만 있는 게 아니다. 자연의 움직임에도 황금비율이 적용된다. 이 경우에는 황금나선구조의 이해가 필수적이다.
그림 11의 정사각형 A는 전체 사각형의 나머지 부분(사각형 EBCF)과 황금비율을 이루고 있고, 정사각형 B는 사각형 HCFL과 황금비율을 이루고 있다. 황금비율로 된 직사각형의 Q를 중심으로 각 정사각형 안에 1/4원(호)을 그려 나가면 그림12과 같은 나선형구조의 호들이 연결된 형태가 된다. 이 호들의 연결된 형태를 황금나선(Golden Spiral)이라 하며 그 진행은 무한대로 뻗어나갈 수 있다. 이 황금나선의 연결된 각 호들의 상호비율을 측정해 보면 황금비율을 이루고 쉽게 알 수 있다. 이와 같이 일정한 비율을 유지하며 무한대로 팽창하는 황금나선 구조가 가장 잘 나타나 있는 게 그림 13의 앵무조개 껍질이다.
이 황금나선 구조는 초식동물의 뿔, 물의 소용돌이, 나아가 태풍과 은하수의 형태에서도 발견된다고 한다. 최근 태양계 내의 각 행성들 간의 거리가 임의적인 것이 아니고 황금나선 구조로 배열되어 있다는 주장이 나와 흥미롭다. 이와 같이 황금비율은 자연 속에 무수히 널려 있다. 어쩌면 가장 큰 자연인 우주 자체가 황금비율에 의한 질서로 이루어져 있는 게 아닐까 하는 생각이 든다.
인간도 황금비율과 황금나선 구조의 예외는 아니다. 배꼽에서 발바닥까지 길이와 키와의 비율, 어깨에서 손가락 끝까지의 길이와 팔꿈치에서 손가락 끝까지의 길이 비율, 엉덩이에서 발바닥까지의 길이와 무릎에서 발바닥까지의 길이 비율 등이 대부분 황금비율인 1 : 1.618에 근접한다. 유전자는 이중나선으로 되어 있는데, 나선의 한 주기는 가로가 34 옹스트롬(angstrom : 1000만분의 1 mm)이고, 세로가 21 옹스트롬인데, 그 비율인 1.619도 황금비인 1.618에 가깝다. 우리가 황금비율에서 가장 편안함과 아름다움을 느끼는 것은 당연할지도 모른다. 인간도 겉과 속 모두 황금비율로 이루어진 자연의 일부이지 않은가.
Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Section
This is the Home page for Dr Ron Knott's multimedia web site on the Fibonacci numbers, the Golden section and the Golden string hosted by the Mathematics Department of the University of Surrey, UK.
There is a large amount of information here on the Fibonacci Numbers and related series and the on the Golden section, so if all you want is a quick introduction then the first link takes you to an introductory page on the Fibonacci numbers and where they appear in Nature.
The Fibonacci numbers are 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... (add the last two to get the next) The golden section numbers are ±0·61803 39887... and ±1·61803 39887... The golden string is 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 ...a sequence of 0s and 1s that is closely related to the Fibonacci numbers and the golden section. |
The rest of this page is a brief introduction to all the web pages at this site on Fibonacci Numbers the Golden Section and the Golden String together with their many applications. |
What's New? - the FIBLOG latest entry: 8 March 2009 |
Fibonacci Numbers and Golden sections in Nature
Ron Knott was on Melvyn Bragg's In Our Time on BBC Radio 4, November 29, 2007 when we discussed The Fibonacci Numbers (45 minutes). You can listen again onl ine or download the podcast. It is a useful general introduction to the Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Section.- Fibonacci Numbers and Nature
Fibonacci and the original problem about rabbits where the series first appears, the family trees of cows and bees, the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series, the Fibonacci Spiral and sea shell shapes, branching plants, flower petal and seeds, leaves and petal arrangements, on pineapples and in apples, pine cones and leaf arrangements. All involve the Fibonacci numbers - and here's how and why.
- The Golden section in Nature
Continuing the theme of the first page but with specific reference to why the golden section appears in nature. Now with a Geometer's Sketchpad dynamic demonstration.0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987 ..More..
The Puzzling World of Fibonacci Numbers
A pair of pages with plenty of playful problems to perplex the professional and the part-time puzzler!- The Easier Fibonacci Puzzles page
has the Fibonacci numbers in brick wall patterns, Fibonacci bee lines, seating people in a row and the Fibonacci numbers again, giving change and a game with match sticks and even with electrical resistance and lots more puzzles all involve the Fibonacci numbers! - The Harder Fibonacci Puzzles page
still has problems where the Fibonacci numbers are the answers - well, all but ONE , but WHICH one ? If you know the Fibonacci Jigsaw puzzle where rearranging the 4 wedge-shaped pieces makes an additional square appear, did you know the same puzzle can be rearranged to make a different shape where a square now disappears?
For these puzzles, I do not know of any simple explanations of why the Fibonacci numbers occur - and that's the real puzzle - can you supply a simple reason why??
The Intriguing Mathematical World of Fibonacci and Phi
The golden section numbers are also written using the Greek letters Phi and phi .- The Mathematical Magic of the Fibonacci numbers
looks at the patterns in the Fibonacci numbers themselves: the Fibonacci numbers in Pascal's Triangle; using the Fibonacci series to generate all right-angled triangles with integers sides based on Pythagoras Theorem.- An auxiliary page:
- More on Pythagorean triangles
The following pages give you lots of opportunities to find your own patterns in the Fibonacci numbers. We start with a complete list of...- The first 500 Fibonacci numbers...
completely factorized up to Fib(300) and all the prime Fibonacci numbers are identified up to Fib(500). - A Formula for the Fibonacci numbers
Is there a direct formula to compute Fib(n) just from n? Yes there is! This page shows several and why they involve Phi and phi - the golden section numbers. - Fibonacci bases and other ways of representing integers
We use base 10 (decimal) for written numbers but computers use base 2 (binary). What happens if we use the Fibonacci numbers as the column headers?
- An auxiliary page:
The Golden Section
The golden section number is closely connected with the Fibonacci series and has a value of (5 + 1)/2 or:
1·61803 39887 49894 84820 45868 34365 63811 77203 09179 80576 ..More..
which we call Phi (note the capital P) on these pages. The other number also called the golden section is Phi-1 or 0·61803... with exactly the same decimal fraction part as Phi. This value we call phi (with a small p) here. Phi and phi have some interesting and unique properties such as 1/phi is the same as 1+phi=Phi.
The third of Simon Singh's Five Numbers programmes broadcast on 13 March 2002 on BBC Radio 4 was all about the Golden Ratio. It is an excellent introduction to the golden section. I spoke on it about the occurrence in nature of the golden section and also the Change Puzzle.
Hear the whole programme (14 minutes) using the free RealOne Player.
- The Golden section and Geometry
The golden section is also called the golden ratio, the golden mean and the divine proportion.
Two more pages look at its applications in Geometry: first in flat (or two dimensional) geometry and then in the solid geometry of three dimensions.- Two-dimensional Geometry and the Golden section or Fantastic Flat Facts about Phi
See some of the unexpected places that the golden section (Phi) occurs in Geometry and in Trigonometry: pentagons and decagons, paper folding and Penrose Tilings where we phind phi phrequently!- An auxiliary page on Exact Trig Values for Simple Angles explores the many places that Phi and phi occur when we try to find the exact values of the sines, cosines and tangents of simple angles like 36° and 54°.
- The Golden Geometry of Solids or Phi in 3 dimensions
The golden section occurs in the most symmetrical of all the three-dimensional solids - the Platonic solids. What are the best shapes for fair dice? Why are there onl y 5?
- Two-dimensional Geometry and the Golden section or Fantastic Flat Facts about Phi
The next pages are about the numbers Phi = 1·61803.. and phi = 0·61803... and their properties.
- Phi's Fascinating Figures - the Golden Section number
All the powers of Phi are just whole multiples of itself plus another whole number. Did you guess that these multiples and the whole numbers are, of course, the Fibonacci numbers again? Each power of Phi is the sum of the previous two - just like the Fibonacci numbers too.- Introduction to Continued Fractions
is an optional page that expands on the idea of a continued fraction (CF) introduced in the Phi's Fascinating Figures page. - There is also a Continued Fractions Converter (a web page - needs no downloads or special plug-is) to change decimal values, fractions and square-roots into and from CFs.
- This page links to another auxiliary page on Simple Exact Trig values such as cos(60°)=1/2 and finds all simple angles with an exact trig expression, many of which involve Phi and phi.
- Introduction to Continued Fractions
We have seen that using a base of the Fibonacci Numbers we can represent all integers in a binary-like way. Here we show there is an interesting way of representing all integers in a binary-like fashion but using onl y powers of Phi instead of powers of 2 (binary) or 10 (decimal).
The Golden String
The golden string is also called the Infinite Fibonacci Word or the Fibonacci Rabbit sequence. There is another way to look at Fibonacci's Rabbits problem that gives an infinitely long sequence of 1s and 0s called the Golden String:-
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 ...
This string is a closely related to the golden section and the Fibonacci numbers.
- Fibonacci Rabbit Sequence
See show how the golden string arises directly from the Rabbit problem and also is used by computers when they compute the Fibonacci numbers. You can hear the Golden sequence as a sound track too.
The Fibonacci Rabbit sequence is an example of a fractal - a mathematical object that contains the whole of itself within itself infinitely many times over.
Fibonacci - the Man and His Times
- Who was Fibonacci?
Here is a brief biography of Fibonacci and his historical achievements in mathematics, and how he helped Europe replace the Roman numeral system with the "algorithms" that we use today.
Also there is a guide to some memorials to Fibonacci to see in Pisa, Italy.
More Applications of Fibonacci Numbers and Phi
- The Fibonacci numbers in a formula for Pi ()
There are several ways to compute pi (3·14159 26535 ..) accurately. One that has been used a lot is based on a nice formula for calculating which angle has a given tangent, discovered by James Gregory. His formula together with the Fibonacci numbers can be used to compute pi. This page introduces you to all these concepts from scratch. - Fibonacci Forgeries
Sometimes we find series that for quite a few terms look exactly like the Fibonacci numbers, but, when we look a bit more closely, they aren't - they are Fibonacci Forgeries.
Since we would not be telling the truth if we said they were the Fibonacci numbers, perhaps we should call them Fibonacci Fibs !!
- The Lucas Numbers
Here is a series that is very similar to the Fibonacci series, the Lucas series, but it starts with 2 and 1 instead of Fibonacci's 0 and 1. It sometimes pops up in the pages above so here we investigate it some more and discover its properties.
It ends with a number trick which you can use "to impress your friends with your amazing calculating abilities" as the adverts say. It uses facts about the golden section and its relationship with the Fibonacci and Lucas numbers.- The first 200 Lucas numbers and their factors
together with some suggestions for investigations you can do.
- The first 200 Lucas numbers and their factors
- The Fibonomials
The basic relationship defining the Fibonacci numbers is F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n+1) where we use some combination of the previous numbers (here, the previous two) to find the next. Is there such a relationship between the squares of the Fibonacci numbers F(n)2? or the cubes F(n)3? or other powers? Yes there is and it involves a triangular table of numbers with similar properties to Pascal's Triangle and the binomial numbers: the Fibonomials. - General Fibonacci Series
The Lucas numbers change the two starting values of the Fibonacci series from 0 and 1 to 2 and 1. What if we changed these to any two values? These General Fibonacci series are called the G series but the Fibonacci series and Phi again play a prominent role in their mathematical properties. Also we look at two special arrays (tables) of numbers, the Wythoff array and the Stolarsky array and show how a these two collections of general Fibonacci series contain each whole number exactly onc e. The secret behind such clever arrays is ... the golden section number Phi!
Fibonacci and Phi in the Arts
- Fibonacci Numbers and The Golden Section In Art, Architecture and Music
The golden section has been used in many designs, from the ancient Parthenon in Athens (400BC) to Stradivari's violins. It was known to artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and musicians and composers, notably Bartok and Debussy. This is a different kind of page to those above, being concerned with speculations about where Fibonacci numbers and the golden section both do and do not occur in art, architecture and music. All the other pages are factual and verifiable - the material here is a often a matter of opinion. What do you think?
Reference
- Fibonacci and Phi Formulae
A reference page of about 250 formulae and equations showing the properties of the Fibonacci and Lucas series, the general Fibonacci G series and Phi. Also available in PDF format (14 pages, 344K) for which you will need the free Acrobat PDF Reader or plug-in for your browser. - Links and Bibliography
Links to other sites on Fibonacci numbers and the Golden section together with references to books and articles.
Awards for this WWW site
Each icon is a link to lists of other Award winning sites that opens in a new window. Check them out!
Other citations
http://www.goldenmuseum.com/index_engl.html
Other citations
Museum of Harmony |
and Golden Section |
http://www.goldenmuseum.com/index_engl.html
Authors of the Museum |
News |
Papers and Lectures of Prof. Stakhov |
Introduction |
Golden section in a history of culture |
Golden Section, Nature and a Man |
Golden Section in Art |
Mathematics of Harmony |
Fibonacci Computers |
Fibonaccization of modern science |
Harmonic Education |
Fibonacci Library |
Virtual International Journal "The Golden Section: Theory and Applications" |
Intenational Conference "Problems of Harmony, Symmetry and the Golden Section in Nature, Science and Art" |
Your reviews and proposals |
Links to Other Resources and Information |
댓글 없음:
댓글 쓰기