Edible insects : Future prospects for food and feed security

It is widely accepted that by 2050 the world will host 9 billion people. To accomodate this
number, current food production will need to almost double. Land is scarce and expanding
the area devoted to farming is rarely a viable or sustainable option. Oceans are overfished
and climate change and related water shortages could have profound implications for
food production. To meet the food and nutrition challenges of today – there are nearly
1 billion chronically hungry people worldwide – and tomorrow, what we eat and how
we produce it needs to be re-evaluated. Inefficiencies need to be rectified and food waste
reduced. We need to find new ways of growing food.
Edible insects have always been a part of human diets, but in some societies there is
a degree of distaste for their consumption. Although the majority of edible insects are
gathered from forest habitats, innovation in mass-rearing systems has begun in many
countries. Insects offer a significant opportunity to merge traditional knowledge and
modern science in both developed and developing countries.

Insects are often considered a nuisance to human beings and mere pests for crops and
animals. Yet this is far from the truth. Insects provide food at low environmental cost,
contribute positively to livelihoods, and play a fundamental role in nature. However,
these benefits are largely unknown to the public. Contrary to popular belief, insects
are not merely “famine foods” eaten in times of food scarcity or when purchasing and
harvesting “conventional foods” becomes difficult; many people around the world eat
insects out of choice, largely because of the palatability of the insects and their established
place in local food cultures.
Insect rearing for food and feed remains a sector in its infancy, and key future challenges
will likely emerge as the field evolves.

Insects as food and feed emerge as an especially relevant issue in the twenty-first
century due to the rising cost of animal protein, food and feed insecurity, environmental
pressures, population growth and increasing demand for protein among the middle classes.
Thus, alternative solutions to conventional livestock and feed sources urgently need to
be found. The consumption of insects, or entomophagy, therefore contributes positively
to the environment and to health and livelihoods.



The role of insectsIt is estimated that insects form part of the traditional diets of at least 2 billion people. More
than 1 900 species have reportedly been used as food. Insects deliver a host of ecological
services that are fundamental to the survival of humankind.

Globally, the most commonly consumed
insects are beetles (Coleoptera) (31 percent), caterpillars (Lepidoptera) (18 percent) and
bees, wasps and ants (Hymenoptera) (14 percent). Following these are grasshoppers, locusts
and crickets (Orthoptera) (13 percent), cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects and
true bugs (Hemiptera) (10 percent), termites (Isoptera) (3 percent), dragonflies (Odonata)
(3 percent), flies (Diptera) (2 percent) and other orders (5 percent).

The most commonly eaten insect groups are beetles, caterpillars,
bees, wasps, ants, grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, cicadas, leaf and planthoppers, scale
insects and true bugs, termites, dragonflies and flies.
Culture
Entomophagy is heavily influenced by cultural and religious practices, and insects are
commonly consumed as a food source in many regions of the world. In most Western
countries, however, people view entomophagy with disgust and associate eating insects
with primitive behaviour. This attitude has resulted in the neglect of insects in agricultural
research. Despite historical references to the use of insects for food, the topic of entomophagy
has only very recently started to capture public attention worldwide.

Insects as a natural resource
Edible insects inhabit a large variety of habitats, from aquatic ecosystems and farmed
land to forests. Until recently, insects were a seemingly inexhaustible resource obtainable
by harvesting from nature. However, some edible insect species are now in peril. A
number of anthropogenic factors, such as overharvesting, pollution, wildfire and habitat
degradation, have contributed to a decline in many edible insect populations. Climate
change will likely affect the distribution and availability of edible insects in ways that are
still relatively unknown.

Environmental opportunities
The environmental benefits of rearing insects for food and feed are founded on the high
feed conversion efficiency of insects. Crickets, for example, require only 2 kilograms of
feed for every 1 kilogram of bodyweight gain. In addition, insects can be reared on organic
side-streams (including human and animal waste) and can help reduce environmental
contamination. Insects are reported to emit fewer greenhouse gases and less ammonia
than cattle or pigs, and they require significantly less land and water than cattle rearing.
Compared with mammals and birds, insects may also pose less risk of transmitting zoonotic
infections to humans, livestock and wildlife, although this topic requires further research.

Nutrition for human consumptionInsects are a highly nutritious and healthy food source with high fat, protein, vitamin, fibre
and mineral content. The nutritional value of edible insects is highly variable because of
the wide range of edible insect species. Even within the same group of species, nutritional
value may differ depending on the metamorphic stage of the insect, the habitat in which
it lives, and its diet.

Farming systems
Most edible insects are harvested in the wild. However, some insect species, such as bees
and silkworms, have a long history of domestication because of the value of their products.
Insects are also reared in large numbers for the purposes of biological control (e.g. as
predators and parasitoids), health (e.g. maggot therapy) and pollination. The concept of
farming insects for food is, however, relatively new.

ProcessingInsects are often consumed whole but can also be processed into granular or paste forms.
Extracting proteins, fats, chitin, minerals and vitamins is also possible.

Food safety and preservationThe processing and storage of insects and their products should follow the same health
and sanitation regulations as for any other traditional food or feed items in order to ensure
food safety.
Evidence of allergies induced
through the ingestion of insects is scarce, but does exist. Some cases have been reported
of allergic reactions to arthropods.


What are insects?
Insects are a class of animals within the arthropod group that have a chitinous
exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs,
compound eyes and two antennae. They are among the most diverse groups of animals
on the planet: there are more than 1 million described species, which is more than half of
all known living organisms. The total number of species is estimated at 6–10 million, and
the class potentially represents over 90 percent of the differing animal life forms on Earth.
Insects may be found in nearly all environments, although only a small number of species
occur in the oceans, a habitat dominated by another arthropod group, the crustaceans.


Insect facts:
• Insects have an exoskeleton to protect them from the environment.
• Insects are the only winged invertebrates.
• Insects are cold-blooded.
• Insects undergo metamorphosis to be able to adapt to seasonal variations.
• Insects reproduce quickly and have large populations.
• Insects’ respiratory systems – networks of tracheal tubes – are tolerant of air and
vacuum pressure, high-altitude flight and radiation.
• Insects often do not need parental care.Source: Delong, 1960.


Why eat insects?
Overall, entomophagy can be promoted for three reasons:
• Health:
-- Insects are healthy, nutritious alternatives to mainstream staples such as chicken,
pork, beef and even fish (from ocean catch).
--Many insects are rich in protein and good fats and high in calcium, iron and zinc.
-- Insects already form a traditional part of many regional and national diets.
• Environmental:
-- Insects promoted as food emit considerably fewer greenhouse gases (GHGs) than
most livestock (methane, for instance, is produced by only a few insect groups,
such as termites and cockroaches).
-- Insect rearing is not necessarily a land-based activity and does not require
landclearing to expand production. Feed is the major requirement for land.
-- The ammonia emissions associated with insect rearing are also far lower than
those linked to conventional livestock, such as pigs.
-- Because they are cold-blooded, insects are very efficient at converting feed into
protein (crickets, for example, need 12 times less feed than cattle, four times less
feed than sheep, and half as much feed as pigs and broiler chickens to produce
the same amount of protein).
-- Insects can be fed on organic waste streams.
• Livelihoods (economic and social factors):
-- Insect harvesting/rearing is a low-tech, low-capital investment option that offers
entry even to the poorest sections of society, such as women and the landless.
--Minilivestock offer livelihood opportunities for both urban and rural people.
-- Insect rearing can be low-tech or very sophisticated, depending on the level
of investment.

Negative attitudes towards insects
In Western societies – where protein is still largely derived from domesticated animals
– insects are virtually synonymous with nuisance: mosquitoes and flies invade homes,
the former leaving behind unwanted bites; termites destroy wood possessions; and some
insects end up in meals (triggering the disgust factor). Certain insects are also transmitters
of disease (Kellert, 1993): a mechanical vector like a housefly, for example, can pick up an
infectious agent on the outside of its body and transmit it to food prior to consumption.
Biological vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and lice harbour pathogens in and are
often responsible for serious blood-borne diseases such as malaria, viral encephalitis,
Chagas disease, Lyme disease and African sleeping sickness. Arthropods such as spiders
have been associated with disease and infection, particularly in Europe, since the tenth
century (Davey, 1994). Butterflies and ladybugs are among the few insects that do not
evoke aversion, avoidance, disgust and disdain (Kellert, 1993; Looy and Wood, 2006).
Few people realize that most insects are beneficial and that very few are damaging.
Western attitudes of disgust towards eating insects have arguably also influenced the
preference of people in tropical countries.
“Westerners should become aware of the
fact that their bias against insects as food has an adverse impact, resulting in a gradual
reduction in the use of insects without replacement of lost nutrition and other benefits”.
However, Western attitudes are changing, as noted by some researchers: “Insects have
long been a significant dietary factor in the poorer regions of the world, and it is high
time that scientists recognize this fact and begin to build on it, rather than discouraging
or ignoring the practice” (Ramos Elorduy, 1990).



Greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions
Livestock waste (urine and manure) also contributes to environmental pollution (e.g.
ammonia) that can lead to nitrification and soil acidification
Among insect species, only cockroaches, termites and scarab beetles produce
CH4
Livestock rearing is responsible for 18 percent of GHG emissions (CO2 equivalent), a
higher share than the transport sector (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Methane (CH4) and nitrous
oxide (N2O) have greater global warming potential (GWP) than CO2: if CO2 has a value
of 1 GWP, CH4 has a GWP of 23 and N2O has a GWP of 289 (IPCC, 2007)



The animal sector‘s contribution to GHG emissions
                      Carbon dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH 4) Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Percentage of
global emissions
                      9                             35–40                 65
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Fertilizer production for feed crops, on-farm
                                energy expenditures, feed transport, animal
                                product processing, animal transport and
                                land use changes
Methane (CH 4): From enteric
                       fermentation in
                       ruminants and from
                       farm animal manure.
Nitrous oxide (N2O): From farm manure
                             and urine

Note: This table shows how much the animal sector contributes to these emissions and why. According to Fiala
(2008), 1 kg of beef causes emissions equivalent to 14.8 kg of CO2, while emissions are lower for pigs and chickens:
3.8 kg and 1.1 kg, respectively.
Source: Steinfeld et al., 2006.



Water use
Water is a key determinant of land productivity. A growing body of evidence suggests
that a lack of water is already constraining agricultural output in many parts of the world.
It is estimated that, by 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with
absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population will likely be under
stress (FAO, 2012b). Increasing demands placed on the global water supply threaten
biodiversity, food production and other vital human needs. Agriculture consumes about
70 percent of freshwater worldwide (Pimentel et al., 2004).

Chapagain and Hoekstra (2003)
estimated that producing 1 kg of animal protein requires 5–20 times more water than
generating 1 kg of grain protein.
Mealworms, for example, are more drought-resistant
than cattle

Food safety and preservationFood safety, processing and preservation are closely related. Insects, like many meat
products, are rich in nutrients and moisture, providing a favourable environment for
microbial survival and growth (Klunder et al., 2012). Traditional processing methods,
such as boiling, roasting and frying, are often applied to improve the taste and palatability
of edible insects and have the added advantage of ensuring a safe food product.\
However, food-safety issues are important not only for insects collected in the wild
but also for farmed insects.

Allergic reactions to edible insects
Like most protein-containing foods, arthropods can induce allergic reactions in sensitive
humans.
People with seafood allergy, for example, could experience allergic reactions
to the consumption of edible insects.
There is a certain amount of evidence of allergies induced through the ingestion of
insects.
For the great majority of people, however,
eating and/or exposure to insects do not pose significant risk of causing allergenic
reactions, especially if the individuals have no history of arthropod or insect allergen
sensitivity acquired through long-term exposure to an allergen in sufficient quantities.


Immunological effects of chitin,
a major component in insect cuticle
Chitin, the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature, contains nitrogen and is
commonly found in lower organisms such as fungi, crustaceans (e.g. crabs, lobsters
and shrimps) and insects, but not mammals. Although the anti-viral and anti-tumour
activities of chitin/derivatives have been known for some time, the immunological
effects of chitin have only recently been recognized.
By inducing non-specific host
resistance against infections by pathogenic bacteria and viruses, there are indications that
chitin reduces allergic responses in individuals. Moreover, chitin has shown potential for
boosting immune system functioning, making it a promising alternative to antibiotics
currently used in livestock (H. Wichers, personal communication, 2012). The use of
chitin for medical and industrial purposes needs to be explored further.


Promoting insects as feed
and food
In areas where food security is fragile, edible insects need to be promoted as key foods
and feeds for nutritional, cultural and economic reasons. However, Western societies
still largely averse to the practice of eating insects will require tailored strategies that
address the disgust factor and break down common myths surrounding the practice.
Governments, ministries of agriculture and even knowledge institutions in developed
countries will need to be targeted, given that insects as food and feed are still largely
absent from political and research agendas. Insects are still viewed as pests by a large
majority of people, despite the increasing literature pointing to their valuable role in
the diets of humans and animals.
 The disgust factor
Common prejudice against eating insects is not justified from a nutritional point of
view. Insects are not inferior to other protein sources such as fish, chicken and beef.
Feelings of disgust in the West towards entomophagy contributes to the common
misconception that entomophagy in the developing world is prompted by starvation
and is merely a survival mechanism. This is far from the truth. Although it will require
considerable convincing to reverse this mentality, it is not an impossible feat (Pliner
and Salvy, 2006). Arthropods like lobsters and shrimps, once considered poor-man’s
food in the West, are now expensive delicacies there. It is hoped that arguments such
as the high nutritional value of insects and their low environmental impact, low-risk
nature (from a disease standpoint) and palatability may also contribute to a shift in
perception
In general, education is the key instrument for creating public awareness of the
potential roles of insects and in influencing consumer choices towards a more balanced
and favourable outlook on insects as food and feed; innovative cookbooks can help
in this (Box 13.2). Although the disgust factor is more common in Western societies,
aversion towards eating insects in the West has also arguably affected people in tropical
countries.


According to UNESCO (2005), the success of education for sustainable development
(Box 13.3) hinges on cooperation between all sectors of the education community: formal,
non-formal and informal. Taking this as a building block, addressing the entomophagy
disgust factor in Western societies might depend largely on the ability to involve the
entire educational community. For this reason, engaging all sectors is recommended,
particularly in Western societies.


Established approaches used in education for sustainable development
Formal education: Primary, secondary, post-secondary and higher education.
Non-formal education: Nature centres, NGOs, public health educators, private companies,
private research centres and agricultural extension agents.
Informal education: Traditional and online media, including television, radio, websites,
newspapers, magazines, Twitter, blogs, YouTube and Facebook.
Source: UNESCO, 2005.

The way forward

Recent developments in research and development show edible insects to be a promising
alternative for the conventional production of meat, either for direct human consumption
or for indirect use as feedstock. Nevertheless, a tremendous amount of work still needs
to be done by a wide range of stakeholders over many years to fully realize the potential
that insects offer for food and feed security.

Insects can contribute to food security and be a part of the solution to protein shortages,
given their high nutritional value, low emissions of GHGs, low requirements for land and
the high efficiency at which they can convert feed into food. The production of insect
biomass as feedstock for animals and fish can be combined with the biodegradation
of manure and the composting and sanitizing of waste. Insects can partly replace the
increasingly expensive protein ingredients of compound feeds in the livestock, poultry
and aquaculture industries. Grains now used as livestock feed, which often comprise half
the cost of meat production, could then be used for human consumption (van Huis, 2013).
Considering that insects already form part of the human diet in many countries, their
potential needs to be re-evaluated. The sustainable harvesting of edible insects in the
wild requires nature conservation strategies. Habitat manipulation measures can increase
the abundance and accessibility of insect populations. The possibility of simultaneously
controlling pest insects by harvesting them as food/feed should be exploited. Simple
rearing procedures for some promising insect species need to be developed.
Micronutrient
bio-availability (particularly of iron and zinc) in edible insects needs further investigation
Considering the immense quantities of insect biomass needed to replace current
protein-rich ingredients such as meal and oil from fish and soybeans, automated massrearing
facilities that produce stable, reliable and safe products need to be developed. The
challenge for this new industry will be to ensure the cost-effective, reliable production
of an insect biomass of high and consistent quality. Regulatory frameworks need to
be developed. The close collaboration of government, industry and academia will be
essential for success.

Edible insects have always been a part of human diets,
but in some societies there remains a degree of disdain
and disgust for their consumption. Although the majority
of consumed insects are gathered in forest habitats,
mass-rearing systems are being developed in many
countries. Insects offer a significant opportunity to merge
traditional knowledge and modern science to improve
human food security worldwide.

Edible insects are a promising alternative to the
conventional production of meat, either for direct human
consumption or for indirect use as feedstock. To fully realize
this potential, much work needs to be done by a wide range
of stakeholders. This publication will boost awareness of
the many valuable roles that insects play in sustaining
nature and human life, and it will stimulate debate on the
expansion of the use of insects as food and feed.



by
Arnold van Huis
Joost Van Itterbeeck
Harmke Klunder
Esther Mertens
Afton Halloran
Giulia Muir
and
Paul Vantomme

Eduardo Rojas-Briales Ernst van den Ende
Assistant Director-General Managing Director
FAO Forestry Department Department of Plant Sciences Group
Wageningen University and Research Centre


Food and agriculture organization of the united nations
Rome, 2013

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